Da intersubjetividade à empatia: em busca das raízes da cooperação
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36482/1809-5267.ARBP2021v73i2p.156-170Keywords:
Empatia, Cooperação, Intersubjetividade, Imitação, Neurônios-espelhoAbstract
Com base nas evidências e reflexões encontradas na Psicologia do Desenvolvimento Humano, na Neurociência, na Psicologia Comparada e na Etologia, argumentamos que a cooperação é entendida como tão fundamental no processo de evolução das espécies que, para facilitá-la, a natureza nos equipou com o mecanismo da empatia para promover a ajuda entre os organismos. Procuramos mostrar como o entendimento da empatia foi ampliado com o desvendamento da intersubjetividade primária, com a descoberta dos neurônios-espelho e a partir da melhor compreensão das bases neurais da emoção. Essas descobertas possibilitam entender a empatia como uma forma de comunicação pré-linguística de base emocional, cujos principais instrumentos são o mimetismo, a sincronia biocomportamental e o compartilhamento emocional, com origem no cuidado parental.
References
Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. D. (1981). The evolution of cooperation. Science, 21(4489), 1390-1396. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7466396
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54(7), 462-479. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003066X.54.7.462
Bateson, M. C. (1979). The epigenesis of conversational interaction: A personal account of research development. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before speech: The beginning of human communication (pp. 63-77). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Bernieri, F. J., & Rosenthal, R. (1991). Interpersonal coordination: Behavior matching and interactional synchrony. In R. S. Feldman, & B. Rimé (Eds.), Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior (pp. 401-432). Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Formação e rompimento de laços afetivos. São Paulo: Martins Fontes. (originalmente publicado em 1979).
Buccino, G., Binkofski, F., & Riggio, L. (2004). The mirror neuron system and action recognition. Brain and Language, 89(2), 370-376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093934X(03)00356-0
Buccino, G., Vogt, S., Ritzl, A., Fink, G. R., Zilles, K., Freund, H. J. et al. (2004). Neural circuits underlying imitation learning of hand actions: an event-related fMRI study. Neuron, 42(2), 323-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6273(04)00181-3
Bussab, V. S. R., & Ribeiro, F. L. (1998). Biologicamente cultural. In L. Souza, M. F. Q. Silva, & M. M. P. Rodrigues (Orgs.), Psicologia: Reflexões (im)pertinentes (pp. 175-194). São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
Bussab, V. S. R., Pedrosa, M. I., & Carvalho, A. M. A. (2007). Encontros com o outro: Empatia e intersubjetividade no primeiro ano de vida. Psicologia USP, 18(2), 99-133. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-65642007000200007
Condon, W. S., & Sander, L. W. (1974). Synchrony demonstrated between movements of the neonate and adult speech. Child Development, 45(2), 456-462.
Custance, D., & Mayer, J. (2012). Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: An exploratory study. Animal Cognition, 15(5), 851-859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-012-0510-1
Darwin, C. (2000). A expressão das emoções no homem e nos animais. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. (originalmente publicado em 1872).
De Mendonça, J. S., Cossette, L., Strayer, F., & Gravel, F. (2011). Mother-child and fatherchild interactional synchrony in dyadic and triadic interactions. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 64(1-2), 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-98752
De Waal, F., & van Roosmalen, A. (1979). Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 5(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302695
De Waal, F. (2010). A era da empatia: Lições da natureza para uma vida mais gentil. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.
De Waal, F. (2012). A bottow-up view of empathy. In F. B. M. Waal, & P. F. Ferrari (Eds.), The primate mind: Built to connect with other minds (pp. 121-138). Cambridge: Harvard University.
De Waal, F., Leimgruber, K., & Greenberg, A. R. (2008). Giving is self-rewarding for monkeys. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(36), 13685-13689. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0807060105
Decety, J. (2015). The neural pathways, development and functions of empathy. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.001
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534582304267187
Decety, J., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2011). Empathy, imitation, and the social brain. In A. Copland, & P. Goldie (Eds.), Empathy: Philosophical and psychological perspectives (pp. 58-81). New York: Oxford University.
Feldman, R. (2017). The neurobiology of human attachments. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(2), 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007
Feldman, R., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2017). Oxytocin: A parenting hormone. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 13-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.011
Gallese, V. (2003). The roots of empathy: The shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology, 36(4), 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1159/000072786
Gallese, V. (2005). Embodied simulation: From neurons to phenomenal experience. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 4, 23-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-005-4737-z
Gallese, V. (2009). Mirror neurons, embodied simulation, and the neural basis of social identification. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 19(5), 519-536. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481880903231910
Gallese, V. (2008). Mirror neurons and the social nature of language: The neural exploitation hypothesis. Social Neuroscience, 3(3-4), 317-333. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470910701563608
Gallese, V., Eagle, M. N., & Migone, P. (2007). Intentional attunement: Mirror neurons and the neural underpinnings of interpersonal relations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 55(1), 131-175. https://doi.org/10.1177/00030651070550010601
Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain, 119(pt. 2), 593-609. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/119.2.593
Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behavior I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy and mirror neuron. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 653-670. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163604
Iacoboni, M., Woods, R. P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J. C., & Rizzolatti, G. (1999). Cortical mechanisms of human imitation. Science, 286(5449), 2526- 2528. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.286.5449.2526
Isabella, R. A., Belsky, J., & von Eye, A. (1989). Origins of infant-mother attachment: An examination of interactional synchrony during the infant’s first year. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1037/00121649.25.1.12
Meltzoff, A. N. (2005). Imitation and other minds: The “like me” hypothesis. In S. Hurley, & N. Chater (Eds.), Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science (vol. 2, pp. 55-77). Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198(4312), 75-78. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.897687
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1983). Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures. Child Development, 54(3):702-709.
Milinski, M., Semmann, D., & Krambeck, H. J. (2002). Reputation helps solve the ‘tragedy of the commons’. Nature, 415(6870), 424-426. https://doi.org/10.1038/415424a
Nadel J., & Baudonnière, P. M. (1981). Imitação, modo preponderante de intercâmbio entre pares durante o terceiro ano de vida. Cadernos de Pesquisa, (39), 26-31.
Nadel, J., & Fontaine, A. M. (1989). Communicating by imitation: A developmental and comparative approach to transitory social competence. In B. H. Schneider, G. Attili, J. Nadel, & R. P. Weissberg. (Org.), Social competence in developmental perspective (pp. 131-144). Dordrecht: Springer.
Nelson, E. E., & Panksepp, J. (1998). Brain substrates of infant-mother attachment: Contributions of opioids, oxytocin, and norepinephrine. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 22(3), 437-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/s01497634(97)00052-3
Nowak, M. A., & Sigmund, K. (1998). Evoluition of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. Nature, 393, 573-577. https://doi.org/10.1038/31225
Oberman, L. M., & Ramachandran, V. S. (2007). The simulating social mind: The role of the mirror neuron system and simulation in the social and communicative deficits of autism spectrum disorders. Psychological bulletin, 133(2), 310-327. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.310
Panksepp, J. (2004). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford: Oxford University.
Panksepp, J. (2011). The basic emotional circuits of mammalian brains: Do animals have affective lives? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(9), 1791-1804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.08.003
Panksepp, J., & Biven, L. (2012). The archaeology of mind: Neuroevolutionary origins of human emotions. New York: WW Norton & Company.
Pfeifer, J. H., Iacoboni, M., Mazziotta, J. C., & Dapretto, M. (2008). Mirroring others’ emotions relates to empathy and interpersonal competence in children. Neuroimage, 39(4), 2076-2085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.032
Preston, S. D., & De Waal, F. B. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and brain sciences, 25(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x02000018
Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Reviews of Neuroscience, 27, 169-192. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230
Rizzolatti, G., Fadiga, L., Gallese, V., & Fogassi, L. (1996). Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Cognitive Brain Research, 3(2), 131-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-6410(95)00038-0
Santana, P. R., Otta, E., & Bastos, M. F. (1993). Um estudo naturalístico de comportamentos empáticos em pré-escolares. Psicologia, Teoria e Pesquisa, 9(3), 575-86.
Shimada, S., & Hiraki, K. (2006). Infant’s brain responses to live and televised action. Neuroimage, 32(2), 930-939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.044
Tomasello, M., Melis, A. P., Tennie, C., Wyman, E., Herrmann, E., Gilby, I. C. et al. (2012). Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation: The interdependence hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 53(6), 673-692. https://doi.org/10.1086/668207
Trevarthen, C. (1977). Descriptive analyses of infant communicative behavior. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction (pp. 227-270). London: Academic Press.
Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and cooperation in early infancy: A description of primary intersubjectivity. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before speech (pp. 321-347). New York: Cambridge University.
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 136-179). Chicago: Aldine.
Vieira, M., Rimoli, A., Prado, A., & Chelini, M. O. (2009). Cuidado e responsividade parentais: Uma análise a partir da história de vida e da teoria do investimento parental. In E. Otta, & M. E. Yamamoto (Orgs.), Psicologia evolucionista (pp. 86-95). Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan. (Série: Fundamentos da Psicologia).
Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J. P., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in my insula: The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron, 40(3), 655-664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00679-2
Yamamoto, M. E, Alencar, A., & Lacerda, A. (2009). Comportamento moral, ou como a cooperação pode trabalhar a favor de nossos genes egoístas. In Emma Otta e Maria Emília Yamamoto (Orgs.), Psicologia Evolucionista (pp. 133-143). Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan. (Série: Fundamentos da Psicologia).
Yamamoto, M. E., Leitão, M., & Eugênio, T. J. (2017). A perspectiva evolucionista no estudo da cooperação. In M. L. Vieira & A. D. Oliva (Orgs), Evolução, cultura e comportamento humano (Vol. 1, pp. 101- 158). Florianópolis: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. (Série: Saúde e Sociedade).
Published
Issue
Section
License
The approval of the text implies immediate and without charge assignment for the rights of publication in Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia, which will have the exclusive right upon the first publication. Notwithstanding the above, the author retains the copyright to later publications. In case of republishing the paper in other media, it is recommended to mention the first publication in Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia.
Copyright for papers published in this journal are the authors', with first publication rights granted to the journal. By virtue of their appearance in this open access journal, the papers are free access for educational and non-commercial purposes.
Partial reproduction of other publications
Submitted manuscripts which contain extracts from other publications should comply with the specified limits to ensure originality of the submitted work. It is recommended to avoid reproducing figures, tables, charts or graphs extracted from other publications.
Manuscripts which contain reproduction of one or more figures, tables, charts or graphs extracted from other publications shall be forwarded to evaluation only if they are accompanied by written permission from the copyright holder of the original work for the specified reproduction in Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia. The permission should be addressed to the author of the submitted work. Under no circumstances Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia and the authors of the published papers in this Journal will transfer the rights thus obtained.
